Chapter 1: The Nature of Abstract Thinking

Abstract thinking refers to the capacity to grasp essential concepts and shared attributes. This cognitive ability enables us to maintain multiple aspects of a situation in our minds, anticipate future events, engage in symbolic thought, and draw inferences. It stands in contrast to concrete thinking.

This mode of thinking allows us to recognize connections between various ideas, beliefs, and elements in both our external and internal environments. It fosters innovation, creativity, imagination, and the ability to learn from past experiences, as well as contemplate future possibilities. Abstract thinking is a cognitive skill that emerges later in human evolution.

Many assume that animals operate solely on instinct or learned responses. However, the question of whether they possess cognitive abilities akin to humans has intrigued scientists for decades. Mark Hauser, a psychology professor at Harvard University, asserts that animals indeed possess thinking capabilities, though this largely hinges on how we define thought. Consequently, researchers often prefer the term "cognitive skills."

Animals can certainly interpret their surroundings. Since the 1980s, scientists have been investigating animal cognition. Hauser posits that animals navigate their environments in ways that parallel human behavior, with chimpanzees serving as prime examples due to their dynamic and complex social structures.

Another area of Hauser's research focuses on identifying shared reasoning processes between humans and animals. He suggests that while animals may have stimulating thoughts, they primarily express them through gestures, vocalizations, and other non-verbal cues.

But can animals engage in deductive reasoning, formulate hypotheses, envision the future, or analyze past experiences? Recent experiments with mice offer insights into these questions.

Research from University College London and the University of Oxford indicates that mice can learn new rules and apply them across various scenarios—a trait previously thought unique to humans. In a series of experiments, scientists presented the mice with visual and auditory stimuli, paired with food rewards.

In the initial test, mice were conditioned to respond defensively to light and dark stimuli. The second experiment involved training them to wait for food in response to specific sounds. Remarkably, even when faced with unfamiliar signals, the mice seemed to anticipate food based on previously learned auditory patterns.

Two landmark studies conducted in the 1950s and 1960s further illustrate the cognitive abilities of animals. The first, conducted on Koshima Island in Japan, demonstrated that local monkeys could learn new feeding techniques by observing their peers. A young monkey's act of washing sweet potatoes in a stream sparked a notable behavioral shift, with three-quarters of juvenile monkeys adopting this new practice.

This discovery indicated that social learning was not exclusive to humans but also prevalent among non-human species. The second study was led by Jane Goodall, who, during her time with chimpanzees in Tanzania, uncovered their intricate social structures, a primitive language comprising over 20 distinct sounds, and their adeptness at tool use—traits once believed to be uniquely human.

Additionally, it's recognized that mammals such as whales, dolphins, and elephants possess the ability to learn and teach.

This video, titled "Human Uniqueness: How Our Brains Set Us Apart in the Animal Kingdom," explores the distinctive cognitive capacities of humans and how they compare to those of other species.

Chapter 2: Rethinking Animal Intelligence

In the video "Rethinking Thinking: How Intelligent Are Other Animals?" various studies and observations are discussed that challenge our understanding of animal intelligence and cognition.